Philosophy is essentially a spirit or method of approaching experience rather than a body of conclusions about experience.
BRANCHES OF PHILOSOPHY: While studying the philosophical thoughts of a philosopher, we study his thinking in different branches of philosophy. These branches of philosophy are as follows:(1) Epistemology. Philosophy is the search for knowledge. This search is critical. Hence, the first problem which arises before a philosopher is about the nature of knowledge and its limitations. Therefore, epistemology is the most fundamental branch of philosophy. It discusses philosophically truth, falsehood, validity of knowledge, limits of knowledge and nature of knowledge, knower and known etc.(2) Metaphysics. This is the study of existence, reality or essence. Its main branches are as follows:(i) Cosmogony. This is a study of creation. Is the world created, or is it eternal? How was world created? Why was it created? Who created the world? What is the purpose in creation? All these are the problems of cosmogony.(ii) Cosmology. The main problems of cosmology are: Is the world one or it many, or is it both one and many?(iii) Ontology. Ontology is the studyof ultimate reality. Is the reality one or is it many or is it both one and many? If reality is many, what is the relation between these many elements? All these are ontological questions.(iv) Philosophy of self. This is mainly concerned with the philosophical analysis of self. What is self? What is its relation with the body? Is it free of does it depend on the body? Is it one or many? All these are problems of philosophy of self.(v) Eschatology. The discussion of the condition of soul after death, the nature of the other world, etc., form the subject matter of this branch of philosophy.(3) Axiology. This branch of philosophy philosophically studies value. It has been divided into the following three branches:(i) Ethics. Ethics discusses the criteria of right and good.(ii) Aesthetics. Aesthetics discusses the nature and criteria of beauty.(iii) Logic studies truth. The subject matter of logic includes the methods of judgment, types of proposition, hypothesis, definition, comparison, division, classification and fundamental laws of thoughts, etc.(4) Philosophy of Sciences. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the philosophical examination of the postulates and conclusions of different sciences.(5) Philosophies of Social Science. The philosophical problems in different social sciences give birth to different branches of philosophy of which the main are as follows:(i) Philosophies of Education.This is concerned with the aim of education and the basic philosophical problems arising in the field of education.(ii)Social Philosophy. This branch of philosophy discusses the philosophical basis of social processes and social institutions.(iii) Political Philosophy. This branch of philosophy is concerned with the forms of government, forms of state and other basic problems arising in the political field. (iv) Philosophy of History. The subject matter of this branch of philosophy is the nature of historical process, its purpose and its relations with the cosmic process.(v) Philosophy of Economics. This branch of philosophy studies the aim of man's economic activities and the fundamental problems arising in the economic field.
Philosophy and the Curriculum: Nowhere is this dependence of education on philosophy more marked than in the question ofthe curriculum. In the first chapter of his work on Education Spencer asserts that in the determination of the curriculum "our first step must obviously be to classify, in the order of their importance, the leading kinds of activity which constitute humanlife."To this principle there can be but little objection. But immediately we seek to fix the relative value of subjects, to classify them "in the order of their importance," differences of aim and of philosophy emerge and confuse the issues.Smith, Stanley and Shores speak of moral authority as one of the chief guides of curriculum building. They say that 'moral authority is derived from fundamental principles of right and wrong. Evidently, the problem is philosophical.According to Spencer, the buildingof a curriculum should be based on the main human activities. He fixes the relative value of subjects in order of their importance; e.g., he gives first place to subjects that relate to self-preservation.According to the naturalists, the present experiences, activities and interests should be the guiding factor. The idealists, the child’s present and future activities are not important at all in the curriculum construction. The experiences of the human race as epitome in sciences and humanities should provide the primary consideration in deciding a curriculum.
IDEALISM: Plato father of Idealism
It has always been believed that idealism is the philosophic theory which is a complete contradiction of the theory known as realism. Idealism has the following characteristics:1.Universe subsists within the spirit or mind. According to this philosophic theory, the entire world is fundamentally of the nature of spirit or mind which accounts for its being called idealism.2.Mechanistic explanation of universe is inadequate. Idealists refuse to accept that the world or universe is susceptible to a mechanical explanation, or to believe that the processes of Nature can be explained on a mechanistic principle. For this reason, the idealists are opposed to all deterministic thinking.3.Teleological explanation of universe. Opposed to the mechanistic explanations of the universe the idealists turn to a teleological theory which holds that human life and natural processes have a common objective which both is simultaneously trying to achieve. They do not object to or reject science but for them the scientific explanation of the universe is not the last word on the subject. Their standpoint is best exemplified by the axiological attitude.4.Synthesis between Man and Nature. It becomes inevitable for the idealists to believe that there is harmony between the natural processes and human activity. Both Man and Nature are busy in working out a common destiny.5.Man is central to the universe. Idealists are also humanists from this standpoint. They believe that man, being the ultimate in spiritual existents, is central to the universe. Human life has a universal and omniscient importance or value. And in man's ultimate good lies the final objective of the universe. It is in man that mind, the spiritual element underlying the entire universe, realizes its essential and purest nature.6.Special attention to the normative and social sciences. Opposed to the realists and the materialists, the spiritualists or idealists do not accept the scientific explanation of the universe, based on scientific laws. They prefer the assistance of the normative and the social sciences in their own scheme of the universe. Ethics, aesthetics and logic make up the three normative sciences while the chief among the social sciences are psychology and sociology. The idealistic explanation of the universe makes greater use of psychology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, etc., than of chemistry, physics, mathematics and the rest of the natural sciences. It is only natural for such an explanation to be completely opposed to the materialistic or naturalistic explanation of the universe.7.Evaluative explanation of the universe. In other words, the idealists profess an evaluative explanation of the universe and of human life, which is what makes them idealists. It should be kept in mind that the term idealists do not imply the vague-minded dreamer or imaginative visionary. The idealist does not reject the assistance of the natural sciences in comprehending the universe but he does not accept such natural facts to be the be all and end all of human life. His notion comprehends the realization of truth, beauty and goodness in human life.8.Conceptualists. In the field of epistemology, the idealist is better called a conceptualist since he believes that the object has no existence apart from its concept. In professing this view the idealist propounds a theory completely at variance with the realist conception of the problem. He believes that the object and its qualities do not have any existence independent of the conception of them. Knowledge influences them. Knowledge of an object occurs not directly but indirectly, through the medium of thought. Objects are not public, since they change with the viewpoint from which they are observed. An object has no existence apart from the thought of it. Existence lies in being related to consciousness.9.Universe is knowledge. The idealists hold that the universe can be known through the medium of reason or mind since both mind and the universe are invested with an identical spiritual element. Hegel goes so far as to establish an identity between mind and Nature by positing that mental categories coincide with stages in the development of the universe. Whatever the minor differences among them, all idealists hold that the universe is knowable.10.Emphasis on the mental or spiritual aspect of universe. Another important characteristic of the idealist thought is thatit emphasizes the mental or spiritual aspects of the universe without nullifying or completely rejecting materialistic explanations of it. It is this higher aspect which conveys some meaning to the lower or material aspect. And everywhere the lower can beexplained in terms of the higher. The naturalists or materialists reverse this by explaining the higher in terms of the lower. Idealism opposes this process (Shrivastava, 2003).
PRAGMATISM
The following are the fundamental principles of pragmatism in the field of education:1. Pluralism. Philosophically, the pragmatists are pluralists. According to them there are as many worlds as human beings. The ultimate reality is not one but many. Everyone searches truth and aim of life according to his experiences. The truth changes according to different spatio-temporal circumstances.2. Emphasis on change. The pragmatists emphasise change the word is aprocess, a constant flux. Truth is always in the making. The word is ever progressing and evolving. Therefore, everything here is changing.3. Utilitarianism. Pragmatists are utilitarians. Utility is the test of all truth and reality. A useful principle is true. Utility means fulfillment of human purposes. The results decide the good and evil of anything, idea, beliefs and acts. If the results are good, these are good, if bad these are evil. Beliefs and theories are determined by circumstances. Utility means satisfaction of human needs.4. Changing aims and values. The aims and values of life change in different times and climes. The old aims and values, therefore, cannot be accepted as they are. Human life and the world is a laboratory in which the aims and values are developed. Everyone should seek aims and values according to his tendencies and abilities.5. Individualism. Pragmatists are individualists. They put maximum premium upon freedom in human life. Liberty goes with equality and fraternity. Everyone should adjust to his environment.6. Emphasis on social aspects. Since man is a social animal, therefore, he develops in social circumstances. His success is success in society. The aim of education is make him successful by developing his social personality.7. Experimentalism. Pragmatists are experimentalists. They give more importance to action than ideas. Activity is the means to attain the end of knowledge. Therefore, one should learn by doing constant experimentation which is required in everyfield of life. According to William James, "Pragmatism is a temper of mind, an attitude, it is also a theory of the nature of ideas and truth, and finally it is a theory about reality".
Pragmatism emerged as the twentieth century revolution against the nineteenth century rationalism, dogmatism, universalism and monism, etc. On the basis of their philosophy, pragmatists refuted the doctrines of other thinkers in the sphere of education and presented their own novel propositions. Some of the more important pragmatic concepts are the following:1.Importance of human effort-Pragmatists believe that education depends upon the active participation of the child. The entire form of the universe is based on human effort and man is the architect of his own destiny.2.Faith in the future. The pragmatic thinker is convinced of the brilliant and prosperous future of the human race. He believes that by makingcontinuous and dedicated effort in the sphere of education, man can create a better adjusted and more powerful generation.3.Empiricism. It is suggested that, at every stage of education, the educator and the educand should refer every fact to his own experience and interpret it in that light. Only then can the new piece of information become a part of his life. Hence, only vocal or verbal education is not enough. It cannot be sufficient until it is based on and related experience. For this reason, pragmatists believe that the child should be given oral instruction, but this instruction should be supplemented by experience in the fields related to each particular subject. 4.Experimentation. Pragmatic philosophy believes in continuous experimentation in every aspect of the educator-educand relationship and in every sphere of education. These experiments will reveal many new facts which can be useful in modifying the curricula, educational methods, aims of education, etc. Seen from this viewpoint, the school itself is a laboratory in which the educator is continuously experimenting. This approach of the pragmatic thinkers has given immense encouragement to educational psychology and child psychology, both of which have experienced remarkable progress.5.Dualism. Concerning the aims, methods, curricula, etc., of education, pragmatism adopts a dualistic approach. It demands that every educator is to base his education on his own experience and philosophy, while every educand is required to acquire an education in keeping with his own specific inclinations, interests and abilities.
SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE
REVEALED This sort of knowledge is based upon revelation from some supernatural celestial beings. This type of knowledge is commonly found in religious jargon. Revealed knowledge is the basis for qualia/phenomenal properties, as well as the belief in God. Revealed Knowledge, or Revelation, is that body of knowledge that exists independent of human conception. Revealed Knowledge is that special Knowledge with which this universe, and preceding universes, and universes in the making, and universes yet to be made are formed, sustained, and ultimately dissolved. Revealed Knowledge described as a knowledge that God has disclosed to man. God inspired certain man to write down the truth that He revealed to them so that these truth might be known thereafter by all mankind. Revealed knowledge is external knowledge. For those who profess this knowledge, the condition is that there must be a total surrendering of oneself to the source of such revelation, that is, the supernatural being, is eternally superior and cannot be said to lie or make a mistake.
INTUITION Intuitive Knowledge is the ability to utilize and acquire knowledge without the use of reason; that science is now facilitating and helping explain. It is the faculty of knowing without the use of rational processes. It is the most personal way of knowing. It is immediate cognition or sharp insight. It occurs beneath the threshold of consciousness. Intuitive knowledge is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc. Human feelings plays greater role in intuitive knowledge compared to reliance on facts. Intuitive knowledge involves direct and immediate recognition of the agreement or disagreement of two ideas. It yields perfect certainty, but is only rarely available to us. Intuition as a mode of knowledge develops on the basis of immediate apprehension. Bertrand Russel (1912) claimed that all our knowledge of truth depends upon our intuitive knowledge. According to Ezewu, intuitive way of knowing is that which involves an immediate insight or eruption into consciousness of an idea produced by a long process of unconscious work. This simply means that intuition is a way of knowing something that one cannot really explain because it transcends ordinary sense experience or reason. Intuition may occur as a sudden arrival of solution to one’s problem or puzzle, having worked for some hours or days without arriving at such solution. It may also come in the form of quick guess of solution to a problem presented by another person. Intuitive knowledge cannot be verified by the senses or the intellect. The true knowledge that comes from beyond the intellect and that is the intuitive knowledge.
AUTHORITY Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been obtained from books, research papers, experts, supreme powers etc. Authoritative knowledge comes from the experts. It is only as valid as the assumptions on which it stands.This kind of knowledge acquired by making recourse to or depending on authority without verifying claims. This kind of knowledge is derived from the written works, documentation and reports of others. If Juliet accepts that Kano is the largest commercial city in northern part of Nigeria because he was told by his teacher, such knowledge is authoritative. Again, if Juliet accepts that Asaba is the Capital of Delta State having read it from a book, his source of knowledge is accepted base on the authority of others. Authoritative knowledge is used in all academic activities as references are, most times, made to authorities, writers, and authors in some specific fields. In the use of authoritative knowledge, care must be made to avoid unnecessary or psychological appeal to authority as this will make nonsense of this source of knowledge.
RATIONAL Rationalists hold that at least some of our knowledge is derived from reason alone, and that reason plays an important role in the acquisition of all of our knowledge. Rationalists believe that knowledge can be arrived at through the use of reason or deductive reasoning. The view that reasoning or logic is the central factor in knowledge is known as rationalism. There is clearly a limit to what we can learn through abstract thought, but the rationalist’s claim is that reason play a role in observation, and so that the mind is more fundamental than the senses in the process of knowledge-acquisition.
EMPIRICAL Epistemology has many branches and includes essentialism, historical perspective, perennialsm, progressivism, empiricism, idealism, rationalism, constructivism and others. Empiricism and rationalism can be specified as the two major constructing debates within the field of epistemological study. Empiricism accepts personal experiences associated with observation, feelings and senses as a valid source of knowledge, whereas rationalism relies on empirical findings gained through valid and reliable measures as a source of knowledge.
Socratic, dialectical method and plato aim of education and Aristotale
THE SOCRATIC METHOD Socrates recognized the unscientific nature of the methods of the sophists, his own method was essentially systematic and founded on general principles. According to Aristotle, "There are two things which we may fairly attribute to Socrates, his inductive discourses and his universal definitions. Inductive reasoning was his method of arriving at a definition. The result attained by his method couldnot be regarded as satisfying the requirements of scientific exactness, but this did not disturb Socrates, for he himself continually and emphatically disclaimed the possession of any knowledge, except perhaps the knowledge of his own limitations." The intoxicated Alcibiades says of him in the Symposium, 'He knows nothing' and is ignorant of all things—such is the appearance which he puts on.' Although not possessing knowledge himself, Socrates claimed to have the gift of discerning its presence in others,and of having the power to assist them to bring it to light. DIALECTICAL METHOD dialectic was a means of discovery of objective and valid definitions of concepts familiarly used in daily life. It is not the condition of dialectical argument that the domain of the argument should be confined to the concept being discussed. It is indeed considered desirable to examine the allied and other concepts if classification of the concept in question calls for such a discussion.
KNOWLEDGE AND VIRTUE The paramount interest of Socrates was ethical or practical. He wanted that knowledge should enlighten the path of each man's life. Accordingly, he regarded upright conduct to be of highest value and considered all else subservient to it. Virtue, for Socrates, was the summum bonum of life. He, however, considered the two to be identical. For him, knowledge is virtue or knowledge of what is goodand right in conduct. He believed that no one did any wrong knowingly and that wrong action was bred by ignorance. This doctrine of Socrates is a little difficult to comprehend, because we find numerous examples of bad actions done knowingly. Socrates, asa matter of fact, overstressed reason and failed to appreciate the strength of irrational in man. Following words express the theory that knowledge is virtue.
PLATO According to Plato, man's mind is always active. Man is attracted towards all things, that he sees in his surroundings, and he runs after them. The educator should take advantage of this propensity in the child and educate him. He should pay attention to the objects which surround the child. Such objects should be beautiful so that the child is naturally attracted to them and his curiosity is aroused. The process of education advances through this constant interaction between the stimulus by which the mind develops. For this reason the child should be kept in beautiful environment. In fact, the human individual requires such an environment not only in infancy but through his entire life, because, according to Plato, the process of education is never complete. It continues throughout one's life. Plato has laid the greatest stress on mental development in education. He conceives of the state as an advanced mind.
Aristotle was master of dialectic. He was a great observer, a voracious reader and a specialist both in natural sciences as well as in philosophy. Among his writings one finds not only on metaphysics and logic but also on human sciences like psychology and ethicsand politics as well as upon natural sciences. Aristotle points out that there are four things which it is usual to teach children; reading, gymnastic exercise, and music, to which (in the fourth place) some add painting. Reading and painting are both of them of singular use inlife, and gymnastic exercise, as productive of courage. As to music, some persons may doubt, as most persons now use it for the sake of pleasure: but those who originally made it part of education did it because, nature requires that we should not only beproperly employed, but to be able to enjoy leisure honourably.
JOHN DEWEY AND HERBART PHILOSOPHY
John Dewey, greatest of the pragmatists and generally recognized as the most outstanding philosopher his country has yet produced, made significant contributions to virtually every field of philosophy as well as to such other areas of inquiry as education and psychology. Active for 70 years as a scholar, he was a prolific writer publishing approximately fifty books and more than eight hundred articles. Many of these have been translated into various foreign languages. New volumes are still coming out with more Dewey material, mainly correspondence, and books and articles on him are appearing at a rapidly increasing rate.Philosophy of Education1. Analysis of reflective inquiry. Perhaps the most important single emphasis of John Dewey is his insistence upon applying reflective or critical inquiry to problems or indeterminate situations. What is involved in problem solving or thinking through a problem? What is critical inquiry? How does one apply intelligence to human affairs? Dewey's answer to these questions is set forth in its simplest terms in How We Think, and a more sophisticated version is given in Logic; The Theory of Inquiry. In a sense the phases or steps in a complete act of reflective thinking afford anoutline for each of his major works, and he had a lifelong concern with what is involved in reflective thinking.2. View of experience. Experience is one of the central concepts in Dewey's thought, occurring and recurring throughout his writing. Though he finally concluded that he might have done better to use another term, many of his most important works are concerned with clarifying it—for example, his Casus Lectures: Experience and Nature or his Art as Experience or Experience and Education. For him experience constitutes the entire range of men's relations to, or transactions with the universe. We experience nature and things interacting in certain ways made up of experience.
Herbart's Theory of Ideas: Man has certain mental sensations if he confronts certain objects. He becomes conscious of them and acts in the most appropriate way towards them. To Herbart these simple elements of consciousness are ideas. When man resists in face of destructive forces, ideas take root in his mind. These ideas do not disappear easily. They struggle to be uppermost in the consciousness.Herbart classifies ideas in three divisions, viz., similar, disparate and contrary. If a new idea happens to be similar to the ideas already in the uppermost consciousness that idea loses its independent entity and fuses with the old ones making up a homogeneous whole. When more than one idea group together in this way they become more magnetic to attract similar ideas.On the contrary, if the new idea is dissimilar or disparate to an already existing idea in the mind it also combines but does not make a homogeneous whole. Two similar ideas mix together, but two dissimilar ideas combine together in adistinguishable manner.Sounds coming from various instruments of an orchestra fuse together and appear to be one because they are similar notes. Similarity of the notes presents a homogenous whole and it becomes almost impossible to distinguish the notes coming from different instruments.
Herbart's Psychology of Education Herbart was the first person who combined Ethics with Psychology and gave rise to a new educational science. With the help of Ethics, he formulated the aims of education and with the aid of Psychology; he laid stress upon the methods of teaching.Herbart condemned the prevalent Faculty Psychology and, developing new psychological ideology, employed it in the educational process.According to Faculty Psychology mind is made up of various unrelated faculties. Opposing this belief, Herbart had established that mind is made up of three parts namely—(1) Knowing, (2) Feeling, and (3) Willing. These three parts have no independent existence of their own. They exist together and cannot be separated.
PAULO FREIRE (1921-1997) (CRITICAL PEDAGOGY)
Freire’s ideas that developed into his critical pedagogy were influenced by the social, political, and economic realities of his native Brazil. Freire’s contention is that no educational issue or practice is free from the influences or the realities of its context. Freire’s context was a situation where the ineptitude and corruption at the larger society level had made incursion into the educational system. He described the educational system using words such as “domesticating” and “banking.” He contrasts banking education with what he calls “liberating or problem-posing education”.
Freire’s Aims of Education: Freire’s philosophy begins from a deep respect and humility for oppressed people and respect for their understanding of the world they inhabit. Freire believed that oppressed could transform their situation in life by thinking critically about reality and then taking action and for this education of indigenous and dominated people is very important. The alleviation of oppression and human suffering is possible through education.
Freire’s Curriculum: Freire insists that curriculum should directly come from the people and must be prepared by them. Curriculum should be built around the themes and conditions of people’s lives. For this it is essential that educators should study their students in their classrooms and in their community to discover the words, ideas, conditions and habits central to their experience. Freire emphasizes that curriculum should be based on the experience of the learners which should enable the learner to interpret their existing situation, critically examine it and then act upon it to transform it. Curriculum should be based on bottom up approach.
Freire’s Critical Pedagogy: Freire’s pedagogy includes the goal of critical consciousness. His pedagogical methodsare students centered which attempt to help students to become critically conscious of reality and to challenge domination. These pedagogical methods are as follows:
Dialogical Consciousness Rising: Dialogue is a classic, old and proven method in education. Freire laid out many components of a liberating education in pedagogy of the oppressed out of which dialogue is the central component. Freire conceptualize dialogue as a conversation among equals. “Dialogue is the encounter between men, mediated by the world, in order to name the world.”
Praxis (Action or Intervention): Once students have become critical thinkers they will be able to begin a process that could lead to their humanization. Freire referred to this process as praxis. He defined this process as “reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it.” This process would involve constant reflection and evaluation. However, Freire believes that this process cannot be carried out in authoritarian form of education such as banking education which inhibits the liberation and freedom of the oppressed.
Teaching –Learning Environment: For Freire, teaching and learning are human experiences with profound social consequences. Classroom dies as intellectual centers when they become delivery systems for lifeless bodies of knowledge. Instead of transferring facts and skills from teacher to students, a Freirean class invites students to think critically about subject matter, doctrines, the learning process itself and their society. In the liberating classroom suggested by Freire’s ideas, teachers pose problems derived from student life, social issues and academic subjects, in a mutually created dialogue.
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